Dear History Lover,

        Autumn has arrived! Students have commenced their schooling. Coinciding with a revolution of reason, pupils find themselves amidst a brazen battle to hone their skills and dismiss distraction. Seemingly simple tasks yield frustration, and not without reason. For decades, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) have become commonplace in children and adolescents. According to the American Psychiatric Association, 8.4% of U.S. children (an increase of over 3% from 3 years ago) have been diagnosed with ADHD. Recent diagnostic increases have led to more frequent prescription of psychotropic medications. Educators and parents manage diverse educational and instructional needs, along with attending to potential effects caused by prescription drugs. 

         How do the disorders affect a student's attention, and what are the long-term effects of pharmaceutical reliance? In 1890, American psychologist William James described 'attention' as:

 ..the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form… Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others and is a condition which has a real opposite in the confused, dazed,
scatterbrain state. 

           "... possession by the mind” is the response to external stimuli and occurs most significantly in the frontal and parietal lobes, where decision-making centers are located. It is here that the brain employs voluntary or reflexive attention. The former is a distinct choice, such as turning to observe a passerby whilst seated at a restaurant.

The latter is involuntary and, often, a response to sudden stimuli, such as jerking one's head in response to a loud or sudden noise.

          Within the realm of reflexive attention, there is "covert attention," which can be deciphered as a mental switch in the brain, rather than a physical movement of the body.

         Circling back, how might a student's performance lead to the administering of prescription stimulant (e.g. amphetamine, methylphenidate) and non-stimulant (e.g. atomoxetine, clonidine, guanfacine) drugs? 

          Teachers report observing: Inadequate listening skills, losing/misplacing items, frequent distractions, forgetting daily activities, and making 'careless'/'thoughtless' errors. Schools also monitor for hyperactivity, marked by: restlessness, squirming whilst seated, fidgety hands/feet, and compulsively talking (which describes me in my natural state).

           Researcher Martina Miklos studied levels of cognitive control (i.e. executive function) in treated vs. untreated children with ADHD. As a control group, Miklos enlisted children who had no ADHD diagnosis. Miklos gathered 168 participants, ranging from 6-12 years of age.

          Miklos administered a computer-based test (KiTAP test, a child’s version of the Tests of Attentional Performance, "TAP"), which measures executive function. The test judged each subject on: reaction times, distractability, alertness, etc. Children receiving psychotropic medication for ADHD were virtually tied with the control group, and, in nearly every category, untreated children diagnosed with ADHD placed last.

        In closing, pharmaceutical psychotropic drugs have been proven to alleviate/sedate indicative character behaviors. They may also have adverse effects. It is up to the patient to balance the pros & cons:and in the context of juvenile treatment, "the combination of drug therapy with certain ... non-medication interventions has been proven to be the most effective treatment for ADHD." (National Institutes of Health, NIH).

Historically Yours,